TYPES OF RESEARCH
Different
authors have classified research into various categories.
Qualitative research
It includes
designs, techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numerical data.
Qualitative data can be collected through direct observation, participant
observation or interview method.
Quantitative research
It includes
designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or
quantifiable data.
Advantages of using both
qualitative and quantitative methods
- Since in many cases a researcher has
several objectives, some of these objectives are better assessed using
quantitative methods.
- Both methods supplement each other
i.e. qualitative methods provide the in-depth explanations while
quantitative methods provide the data needed to test hypotheses.
- Since both methods have a bias,
using both types of research helps to avoid such bias in that each method
can be used to check the other.
Disadvantages of using
both qualitative and quantitative methods
- It is expensive
- Researchers may not have sufficient
training in both methods to be able to use them effectively.
Classification
by purpose
1.
Basic / Pure / Fundamental
Research
Basic
researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they are
motivated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular
solution. It focuses on generating new knowledge in order to refine or expand
existing theories. It does not consider the practical application of the
findings to actual problems or situations.
2.
Applied research
It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and
evaluating its usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to support a
theory, guide theory revision or suggest the development of a new theory.
3.
Action research
It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific,
immediate and concrete problem in a local setting e.g. investigating ways of
overcoming water shortage in a given area. It is not concerned with whether the
results can be generalized to any other setting.
4.
Evaluation Research
It
is the process of determining whether the intended results were realized.
Types
of evaluation research
i.
Needs assessment
A need is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a
desired set of conditions. The results of needs assessment study provide the
foundation for developing new programmes and for making changes in existing
ones.
ii.
Formative evaluation
Helps to collect data about a programme while it is still being
developed e.g. an educational programme, a marketing strategy etc.
iii.
Summative evaluation
It
is done after the programme has been fully developed. It is conducted to
evaluate how worthwhile the final programme has been especially compared to
similar programmes.
Classification
by methods of analysis
1.
Descriptive research
It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or
to answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects in the study.
It determines and reports the way things are. It attempts to describe such
things as possible behaviour, attitudes, values and characteristics.
Steps involved in
descriptive research
Ø Formulating the objectives of a study
Ø Designing the methods of data collection
Ø Selecting the sample
Ø Data collection
Ø Analyzing the results
2.
Causal-comparative research
It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines
reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The
variables of interest cannot be manipulated unlike in experimental research.
Steps in
causal-comparative research
Ø Define the research question
Ø Select a group that possesses the characteristics, which the
researcher wants to study.
Ø Select a comparison group which does not display the characteristics
under study but which is similar to the group in other respects.
Ø Collect data on both the experimental and control groups
Ø Analyze the data
Advantages of causal-comparative study
Ø Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the
independent variables
Ø It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental
investigation
Ø They are relatively cheap.
Disadvantages of causal-comparative study
Ø Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know
whether a particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being
studied.
Ø There may be a third variable which could be affecting the
established relationship but which may not be established in the study.
3.
Correlation Methods
It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are
related. It explores relationships between variables and also tries to predict
a subject’s score on one variable given his or her score on another variable.
Steps in correlational
research
Ø Problem statement
Ø Selection of subjects
Ø Data collection
Ø Data analysis
Advantages
of the correlational method
Ø Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of
variables in a single study.
Ø Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination
might affect a particular phenomenon being studied.
Ø The method provides information concerning the degree of
relationship between variables being studied.
Disadvantages
of the correlational method
Ø Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply
causation although researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to
mean causation.
Ø Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables
will always show a relationship even when commonsense dictates that such
variables are not related.
Ø The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the
sample.
Classification
by type of research
1.
Survey
Research
A survey is an
attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the
current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. Survey
study is therefore a self-report study, which requires the collection of
quantifiable information from the sample. It is a descriptive research.
Steps involved in Survey
research
Ø Problem statement
Ø Defining Objectives
Ø Selecting a Sample
Ø Preparing the instruments
Ø Data analysis
Purpose of survey
research
i.
It seeks to obtain information
that describes existing phenomena by asking individuals about their
perceptions, attitudes, behaviour or values.
ii.
Can be used for explaining or
exploring the existing status of two or more variables, at a given point in
time.
iii.
It is the most appropriate to
measure characteristics of large populations.
i.
They are dependent on the
cooperation of respondents.
ii.
Information unknown to the
respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g. amount saved per year
iii.
Requesting information which is
considered secret and personal, encourages incorrect answers.
iv.
Surveys cannot be aimed at
obtaining forecasts of things to come.
2.
Historical
research
Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information
from the past.
Purpose
of Historical Research
Ø Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends
of past occurrences that may help explain present events and anticipate future
events.
Ø Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed
unrelated.
Ø Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts
that the researcher or other researchers have discovered.
Ø To reinterpret past events
that have been studied.
Steps involved in historical research
Ø Identifying and delineating the problem.
Ø Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in
testing.
Ø Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts by
internal and external criticism.
Ø Organizing facts into results
Ø Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory.
Ø Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form.
3.
Observational
Research
The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking but
by observing. This helps to collect objective information.
Steps
Ø Selection and definition of the problem.
Ø Sample selection.
Ø Definition of the observational information.
Ø Recording observational information
Ø Data analysis and interpretation.
Types
of observational research
1.
Non-participant
observation
The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be
observed.
2.
Naturalistic Observation
Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally occurs.
3.
Simulation observation.
The
researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects to be
observed what activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage – the setting is
not natural and the behaviour exhibited by the subjects may not be the
behaviour that would occur in a natural setting.
4.
Participant observation
The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation. May not be ethical
5.
Case studies
A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group,
institution or phenomenon. It aims to determine factors and relationships among
the factors that have resulted in the behaviour under study.
6.
Content analysis
It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items
or things that comprise the sample. The
purpose is to study existing documents such as books, magazines in order to
determine factors that explain a specific phenomenon.
Steps
Ø Decide on the unit of analysis
Ø Sample the content to be analyzed
Ø Coding
Ø Data analysis
Ø Compiling results and interpretations.
Advantages
Ø Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money.
Ø Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and correct.
Ø The method has no effect on what is being studied.
Disadvantages
Ø It is limited to recorded communication.
Ø It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.
Characteristics of a
Good Research
Following the
standards of the scientific method
Ø Purpose clearly defined
Ø Research process detailed
Ø Research design thoroughly planned
Ø Limitations frankly revealed
Ø High ethical standards applied
Ø Findings presented unambiguously
Ø Conclusions justified
Ø Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s needs
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