LITERATURE REVIEW 1

LITERATURE REVIEW

The review of literature involves the systematic identification, location and analysis of documents containing information related to the research problem being investigated. It should be extensive and thorough because it is aimed at obtaining detailed knowledge of the topic being studied.

Purpose of literature review

Ø   To determine what has already been done related to the research problem being studied. This will help the researcher to:

-     Avoid unnecessary and unintentional duplication.

-     Form the framework within which the research findings are to be interpreted.

-     Demonstrate his or her familiarity with the existing body of knowledge.

Ø   Helps reveal the strategies, procedures and measuring instruments that have been found useful in investigating the problem in question. This will help the researcher to:

-     Avoid mistakes that have been made by other researchers

-     Benefit from other researcher’s experiences

-     Clarify how to use certain procedures, which one may only have learned in theory.

Ø   Helps to suggest other procedures and approaches, which will help, improve the research study.

Ø   Familiarizes the researcher with previous studies, which facilitates interpretation of the results of the study. If there is a contradiction, the literature review might provide rationale for the discrepancy.

Ø   It helps the researcher to limit the research problem and to define it better.

Ø   Helps to determine new approaches and stimulates new ideas. The researcher may be alerted to research possibilities, which have been overlooked in the past.

Ø   Approaches that have been proved to be futile will be revealed through literature review.

Ø   Specific suggestions and recommendations for further research can be found by reviewing literature.

Ø   It pulls together, integrates and summarizes what is known in an area. Thus helping to reveal gaps in information and areas where major questions still remain.

 Steps in carrying out literature review.

1.      Familiarize yourself with the library before beginning the literature review.

2.      Make a list of key words or phrases to guide your literature search.

3.      With the key words and phrases related to the study, one should go to the source of literature.

4.      Summarize the references on cards for easy organisation of the literature.

5.      Once collected, the literature should be analyzed, organized and reported in an orderly manner.

6.      Make an outline of the main topics or themes in order of presentation.

7.      Analyze each reference in terms of the outline made and establish where it will be most relevant.

8.      The literature should be organized in such a way that the more general is covered first before the researcher narrows down to that which is more specific to the research problem.

Sources of literature

 (a)       Primary sources: are direct descriptions of any occurrence by an individual who actually observed or witnessed the occurrence.

 (b)      Secondary source: they include any publications written by an author who was not a direct observer or participant in the events described.

Examples

Ø  Scholarly journals

Ø  Theses and dissertations

Ø  Government documents

Ø  Papers presented at conferences

Ø  Books

Ø  References quoted in books

Ø  International indices

Ø  Abstracts

Ø  Periodicals

Ø  The Africana section of the library

Ø  Reference section of the library

Ø  Grey literature

Ø  Inter-library loan

Ø  The British lending library

Ø  The internet

Ø  MicrofilmTips on good review of literature

Ø Do not conduct a hurried review for fear of overlooking important studies.

Ø Do not rely too heavily on secondary sources.

Ø Check daily newspapers as they contain very educative, current information.

Ø Copy the references correctly in the first place so as to avoid the frustration of trying to retrace a reference later.

Ø Do not only concentrate on findings, check on methodology and measurement of variables.

Characteristics of a good problem statement

STATING THE PROBLEM

A research study starts with a brief introductory section. The researcher introduces briefly the general area of study, and then narrows down to the specific problem to be studied.

Characteristics of a good problem statement

Ø  It should be written clearly and in such a way that the reader’s interest is captured immediately.

Ø  The specific problem identified in the problem statement should be objectively researchable

Ø  The scope of the specific research problem should be indicated

Ø  The importance of the study in adding new knowledge should be stated clearly

Ø  The problem statement must give the purpose of the research.

STATING THE PURPOSE

The purpose of a study crystallizes the researcher’s inquiry into a particular area of knowledge in a given field. If the purpose is accurately expressed, the research process will be carried out with ease. The purpose of the study should meet the following criteria:

Ø  It must be indicated clearly, unambiguously and in a declarative manner.

Ø  The purpose should indicate the concepts or variables in the study.

Ø  Where possible, the relationships among the variables should be stated.

Ø  The purpose should state the target population.

Ø  The variables and target population given in the purpose should be consistent with the variables and target population operationalised in the methods section of the study.

In stating the purpose of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences should be avoided.

Examples

Biased	Neutral
To show To prove To confirm To verify To check To demonstrate To indicate To validate To explain To illustrate	To determine To compare To investigate To differentiate To explore To find out To examine To inquire To establish To test

STATING THE OBJECTIVES

Research objectives are those specific issues within the scope of the stated purpose that the researcher wants to focus upon and examine in the study.

Characteristics of a good objective

Ø  Specific:

Ø  Measurable

Ø  Achievable

Ø  Reliable

Ø  Time bound

Objectives guide the researcher in formulating testable hypotheses.

In stating the objectives of the study, the researcher should choose the right words to convey the focus of the study effectively. Use of subjective or biased words or sentences should be avoided.

FORMULATING HYPOTHESES

A hypothesis is a researchers prediction regarding the outcome of the study. It states possible differences, relationships or causes between two variables or concepts. Hypothesis are derived from or based on existing theories, previous research, personal observations or experiences. The test of a hypothesis involves collection and analysis of data that may either support or fail to support the hypothesis. If the results fail to support a stated hypothesis, it does not mean that the study has failed but it implies that the existing theories or principles need to be revised or retested under various situations.

Purpose of hypothesis

Ø It provides direction by bridging the gap between the problem and the evidence needed for its solution.

Ø It ensures collection of the evidence necessary to answer the question posed in the statement of the problem.

Ø It enables the investigator to assess the information he or she has collected from the standpoint of both relevance and organisation.

Ø It sensitizes the investigator to certain aspects of the situation that are relevant regarding the problem at hand.

Ø It permits the researcher to understand the problem with greater clarity and use the data to find solutions to problems.

Ø It guides the collection of data and provides the structure for their meaningful interpretation in relation to the problem under investigation.

Ø It forms the framework for the ultimate conclusions as solutions.

Characteristics of a good hypothesis

A sound review of literature or of existing theories often leads to good hypothesis.

1.      Should state clearly and briefly the expected relationships between variables.

2.      Must be based on a sound rationale derived from theory or previous research or professional experience.

3.      Must be consistent with common sense or generally accepted truths.

4.      Must be testable.

5.      Must be related to empirical phenomena. Words like ought, should, bad should be avoided since they reflect moral judgment.

6.       Should be testable within a reasonable time.

7.      Variables stated in the hypothesis must be consistent with the purpose statement, objectives and operationalised variables in the method section.

8.      Must be as simple and as concise as the complexity of the concepts involved allows.

9.      It must be stated in such a way that its implications can be deduced in the form of empirical operations with respect to which relationship can be validated or refuted.

Assumptions and Limitations

Ø  An assumption is any fact that a researcher takes to be true without actually verifying it. It puts some boundary around the study and provides the reader with vital information, which influences the way results of the study are interpreted.

Ø  A limitation is an aspect of a research that may influence the results negatively but over which the researcher has no control. A common limitation in social science studies is the scope of the study, which sometimes may not allow generalizations. Sample size may also be another limitation.

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AREA

IDENTIFICATION OF RESEARCH AREA

The research process starts by formulating a research problem that can be investigated through research procedures.

Identifying a research problem

The first step in selecting a research problem is to identify the broad area that one is interested in. Such an area should be related to the professional interests and goals of the researcher e.g. low-cost housing, productivity of workers, small-scale businesses etc.

The second step is to identify a specific problem within it that will form the basis of the research study. The research problem should be an important one i.e. it should

Ø  Lead to findings that have widespread implications in a particular area

Ø  Challenge some commonly held truism

Ø  Review the inadequacies of existing laws, views or policies

Ø  Cover a reasonable scope e.g. not too narrow or too general.

Defining the research problem

A research problem refers to some difficulty which the researcher experiences in the context of either a theoretical or practical situation and wants to obtain a solution for the same. A research problem exists if the following conditions are met:-

Ø  There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty or the problem.

Ø  There must be some objective(s) to be attained.

Ø  There must be alternative means or courses of action for obtaining the objective(s) one wishes to attain.

Ø  There must be some doubt in the mind of a researcher with regard to the selection of alternatives.

Ø  There must be some environment(s) to which the difficulty pertains.

Selecting the problem

The following points must be observed by a researcher in selecting a research problem or a subject of study:

Ø  Subject which is overdone should not be normally chosen, for it will be a difficult task to throw any new light in such a case.

Ø  Controversial subject should not become the choice of an average researcher.

Ø  Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided.

Ø  The subject selected for research should be familiar and feasible so that the related research material or sources of research are within one’s reach.

Ø  The importance of the subject, the qualifications and the training of a researcher, the costs involved and the time factor must be considered.

Ø  The selection of a study must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Defining the problem

It involves the task of laying down boundaries within which a researcher shall study the problem with a predetermined objective in view. The following steps can be followed:-

Ø  Statement of the problem in a general way

Ø  Understanding the nature of the problem: Understand the origin and nature of the problem e.g. by discussing it with those who raised it in order to find out how the problem originally came about. The researcher should keep in view the environment within which the problem is to be studied and understood.

Ø  Surveying the available literature: the researcher must be well conversant with relevant theories in the field, reports and records as also all other relevant literature.

Ø  Developing ideas through discussions:

Ø  Rephrasing the research problem: Its putting the research problem in as specific terms as possible so that it may become operationally viable and may help in the development of working hypotheses.

The following should also be observed when defining a research problem:

Ø  Technical terms and words or phrases with special meanings used in the statement of the problem, should be clearly defined.

Ø  Basic assumptions or postulates if any relating to the research problem should be clearly stated.

Ø  A straight forward statement of the value of the investigation should be provided.

Ø  The suitability of the time-period and the sources of data available must also be considered by the researcher in defining the problem.

Ø  The scope of the investigation or the limits within which the problem is to be studied must be mentioned explicitly in defining a research problem.

Certain factors determine the scope of a research study. These include:

Ø  The time available to carry it out

Ø  The money available to carry it out

Ø  The availability of equipment if needed to carry it out

Ø  The availability of subjects or the units of study.

Ways of identifying a specific research problem from the broad area.

 (a)       Existing theories

 (b)      Existing literature

 (c)       Discussions with experts

 (d)      Previous research studies

 (e)       Replication

 (f)       The media

 (g)      Personal experiences.

TYPES OF RESEARCH

TYPES OF RESEARCH

Different authors have classified research into various categories.

Qualitative research

It includes designs, techniques and measures that do not produce discrete numerical data. Qualitative data can be collected through direct observation, participant observation or interview method.

Quantitative research

It includes designs, techniques and measures that produce discreet numerical or quantifiable data.

Advantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. Since in many cases a researcher has several objectives, some of these objectives are better assessed using quantitative methods.
2. Both methods supplement each other i.e. qualitative methods provide the in-depth explanations while quantitative methods provide the data needed to test hypotheses.
3. Since both methods have a bias, using both types of research helps to avoid such bias in that each method can be used to check the other.

Disadvantages of using both qualitative and quantitative methods

1. It is expensive
2. Researchers may not have sufficient training in both methods to be able to use them effectively.

Classification by purpose

1.      Basic / Pure / Fundamental Research

Basic researchers are interested in deriving scientific knowledge i.e. they are motivated by intellectual curiosity and need to come up with a particular solution. It focuses on generating new knowledge in order to refine or expand existing theories. It does not consider the practical application of the findings to actual problems or situations.

2.      Applied research

It is conducted for the purpose of applying or testing theory and evaluating its usefulness in solving problems. It provides data to support a theory, guide theory revision or suggest the development of a new theory.

3.      Action research

It is conducted with the primary intention of solving a specific, immediate and concrete problem in a local setting e.g. investigating ways of overcoming water shortage in a given area. It is not concerned with whether the results can be generalized to any other setting.

4.      Evaluation Research

It is the process of determining whether the intended results were realized.

Types of evaluation research

                       i.            Needs assessment

A need is a discrepancy between an existing set of conditions and a desired set of conditions. The results of needs assessment study provide the foundation for developing new programmes and for making changes in existing ones.

                     ii.            Formative evaluation

Helps to collect data about a programme while it is still being developed e.g. an educational programme, a marketing strategy etc.

                   iii.            Summative evaluation

It is done after the programme has been fully developed. It is conducted to evaluate how worthwhile the final programme has been especially compared to similar programmes.

Classification by methods of analysis

1.      Descriptive research

It is the process of collecting data in order to test hypotheses or to answer questions concerning the current status of the subjects in the study. It determines and reports the way things are. It attempts to describe such things as possible behaviour, attitudes, values and characteristics.

Steps involved in descriptive research

Ø  Formulating the objectives of a study

Ø  Designing the methods of data collection

Ø  Selecting the sample

Ø  Data collection

Ø  Analyzing the results

2.      Causal-comparative research

It is used to explore relationships between variables. It determines reasons or causes for the current status of the phenomenon under study. The variables of interest cannot be manipulated unlike in experimental research.

Steps in causal-comparative research

Ø  Define the research question

Ø  Select a group that possesses the characteristics, which the researcher wants to study.

Ø  Select a comparison group which does not display the characteristics under study but which is similar to the group in other respects.

Ø  Collect data on both the experimental and control groups

Ø  Analyze the data

Advantages of causal-comparative study

Ø  Allows a comparison of groups without having to manipulate the independent variables

Ø  It can be done solely to identify variables worthy of experimental investigation

Ø  They are relatively cheap.

Disadvantages of causal-comparative study

Ø  Interpretations are limited because the researcher does not know whether a particular variable is a cause or result of a behaviour being studied.

Ø  There may be a third variable which could be affecting the established relationship but which may not be established in the study.

3.      Correlation Methods

It describes in quantitative terms the degree to which variables are related. It explores relationships between variables and also tries to predict a subject’s score on one variable given his or her score on another variable.

Steps in correlational research

Ø  Problem statement

Ø  Selection of subjects

Ø  Data collection

Ø  Data analysis

Advantages of the correlational method

Ø  Permits one to analyze inter-relationships among a large number of variables in a single study.

Ø  Allows one to analyze how several variables either singly or in combination might affect a particular phenomenon being studied.

Ø  The method provides information concerning the degree of relationship between variables being studied.

Disadvantages of the correlational method

Ø  Correlation between two variables does not necessarily imply causation although researchers often tend to interpret such a relationship to mean causation.

Ø  Since the correlation coefficient is an index, any two variables will always show a relationship even when commonsense dictates that such variables are not related.

Ø  The correlation coefficient is very sensitive to the size of the sample.

Classification by type of research

1.      Survey Research

A survey is an attempt to collect data from members of a population in order to determine the current status of that population with respect to one or more variables. Survey study is therefore a self-report study, which requires the collection of quantifiable information from the sample. It is a descriptive research.

Steps involved in Survey research

Ø  Problem statement

Ø  Defining Objectives

Ø  Selecting a Sample

Ø  Preparing the instruments

Ø  Data analysis

Purpose of survey research

           i.            It seeks to obtain information that describes existing phenomena by asking individuals about their perceptions, attitudes, behaviour or values.

         ii.            Can be used for explaining or exploring the existing status of two or more variables, at a given point in time.

       iii.            It is the most appropriate to measure characteristics of large populations.

Limitations of Survey research

           i.            They are dependent on the cooperation of respondents.

         ii.            Information unknown to the respondents cannot be tapped in a survey e.g. amount saved per year

       iii.            Requesting information which is considered secret and personal, encourages incorrect answers.

       iv.            Surveys cannot be aimed at obtaining forecasts of things to come.

2.      Historical research

Involves the study of a problem that requires collecting information from the past.

Purpose of Historical Research

Ø  Aims at arriving at conclusions concerning causes, effects or trends of past occurrences that may help explain present events and anticipate future events.

Ø  Attempts to interpret ideas or events that had previously seemed unrelated.

Ø  Synthesizes old data or merges old data with new historical facts that the researcher or other researchers have discovered.

Ø  To reinterpret  past events that have been studied.

Steps involved in historical research

Ø  Identifying and delineating the problem.

Ø  Developing hypothesis or hypotheses that one is interested in testing.

Ø  Collecting and classifying resource materials, determining facts by internal and external criticism.

Ø  Organizing facts into results

Ø  Interpreting data in terms of stated hypothesis or theory.

Ø  Synthesizing and presenting the research in an organized form.

3.      Observational Research

The current status of a phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing. This helps to collect objective information.

Steps

Ø  Selection and definition of the problem.

Ø  Sample selection.

Ø  Definition of the observational information.

Ø  Recording observational information

Ø  Data analysis and interpretation.

Types of observational research

1.      Non-participant observation

The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed.

2.      Naturalistic Observation

Behaviour is studied and recorded as it normally occurs.

3.      Simulation observation.

The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects to be observed what activities they are to engage in. Disadvantage – the setting is not natural and the behaviour exhibited by the subjects may not be the behaviour that would occur in a natural setting.

4.      Participant observation

The observer becomes part of or a participant in the situation.  May not be ethical

5.      Case studies

A case study is an in-depth investigation of an individual, group, institution or phenomenon. It aims to determine factors and relationships among the factors that have resulted in the behaviour under study.

6.      Content analysis

It involves observation and detailed description of objects, items or things that comprise the sample.  The purpose is to study existing documents such as books, magazines in order to determine factors that explain a specific phenomenon.

            Steps

Ø  Decide on the unit of analysis

Ø  Sample the content to be analyzed

Ø  Coding

Ø  Data analysis

Ø  Compiling results and interpretations.

Advantages

Ø  Researchers are able to economize in terms of time and money.

Ø  Errors that arise during the study are easier to detect and correct.

Ø  The method has no effect on what is being studied.

Disadvantages

Ø  It is limited to recorded communication.

Ø  It is difficult to ascertain the validity of the data.

Characteristics of a Good Research

Following the standards of the scientific method

Ø  Purpose clearly defined

Ø  Research process detailed

Ø  Research design thoroughly planned

Ø  Limitations frankly revealed

Ø  High ethical standards applied

Ø  Findings presented unambiguously

Ø  Conclusions justified

Ø  Researcher’s experience reflected

Ø  Adequate analysis for decision-maker’s needs